Arrested for Murder in Dublin Ireland Research Paper

Arrested for Murder in Dublin Ireland - Research Paper Example Murders in most countries attract different punishments and this is mostly influenced by the circumstance under which the murder was actually committed. Most regions use capital punishments for intentional murders even though current human rights bodies have advocated for the abolition of this punishment. The constitution of the republic of Ireland prohibits the death penalty and this has been in force since 2002 when constitutional amendments were undertaken. The legal processes involved in handling murder suspects in Dublin Ireland and the United States will be compared to highlight some of the legal differences that exist. Suspects have legal liberties and freedoms provided by the constitution of different countries including that of Dublin Ireland. As a murder suspect arrested in Dublin, Ireland, the legal procedure in the country exposes me to various processes which are considered under the due process law of the country. Due process rights are legal protections which are developed by law to protect suspects against unfair treatments and abuses during the arresting, interrogation and sentencing process. The due process rights differ depending on country in question and the process I will face in Ireland differs with that which I may be subjected to in the United States. Despite being accused of murder, the Dublin law demands that I be subjected to a fair process with fair treatment before being presented before a court of law. As an accused, the law does not require me to prove my innocence and may therefore maintain my silence during the initial phases of the trial (King, 2004). As an accused whose crime is still under investigation, the due process law in Dublin Ireland protects from self-incrimination and allows me the right to be represented by an attorney before the court of law. Before being arrested, the law enforcer has to read out the charges to me before I can be taken into police custody. The witnesses

Thomas Hardys life and work Essay Example for Free

Thomas Hardys life and work Essay What becomes apparent from researching Thomas Hardys life is the multitude of experiences and influences that may have had some bearing on how he wrote and the content of these works. Obviously, his early life in Dorset and the bearing upon which this had on his early works is apparent through vivid descriptions and the recounting of certain episodes so much so that it is impossible to ignore the inspiration that he derived from his birthplace. For example, the portrayal of the heath in The Return Of The Native is the work of a man clearly saturated by his environment. Hardys flirtation with the clergy during his early years, and his subsequent disillusionment, may also have been significant to his writings in the capacity of spiritual development and advancement. It seems that his temporary abandonment of the countryside in favour of the city and its hectic lifestyle, along with his rejection of religion, represents a man moving away in search of new inspirations and passions to indulge which he most certainly did if accounts of his private life are to be believed. With the introduction of Emma Guifford into his life and the qualities that she possessed strength, vivacity and vitality, Hardy was perhaps more settled having found a muse and someone with whom he could share ideas, reflect and ruminate with. Dare I say that perhaps his love for this woman masked a Freudian desire to rediscover his mothers strength of character and resourcefulness? After all, both women had married well beneath their social class yet found it in them to make use of their well-educated backgrounds. Seeing as how Hardy trained as an architect, on reading his work one can detect a discernible acknowledgement of structure and form in which he creates images that stand alone without further referral to detail. It is in this strength of description that Hardy forms believable and tangible backdrops against which he can set his novels, once again using the heath in The Return Of The Native as a prime example. As I have barely touched on the issue, I must stress the importance of which class seems to have affected Hardys work. In order to become accepted by  the class into which he had married and was now a part of due to his literary connections, Hardy felt it necessary to refer to works that only one of an cultured and educated background would be aware of. With his apparent shyness and easily influenced character, perhaps Hardy felt he had to compensate for his humble upbringings by donning a patrician faà §ade. Yet his character is also contradictory, what with his pride of being a countryman and the fact that he would occasionally play the fiddle in country inns and taverns, soaking up the atmosphere for his novels. It is through Hardys indulgent and addictive character that emerges the true face of the man responsible for such feats in modern literature (although he never actually won the Nobel Prize, once nominated) a sensitive and aware man, paradoxically unsure of his placement in life but certain of the importance of his work. It is through these influences and loves that we now enjoy the wealth and variety of his legacy.

Mesmerism :: Research Papers Franz Mesmer

Mesmerism "Mesmerism" is a term coined after a man named Franz Anton Mesmer ("writers also refer to him as Franciscus Antonius Mesmer, Franz Antoine Mesmer and Friedrich Anton Mesmer" [http://www.hcrc.org/diction/m.html] ). "Mesmer was born in Iznag, Swabia (Germany} on May 23, 1734" (http://www.eb.com/cgi-bin/g?keywords=mesmerism). He went on in life to complete medical training at the University of Vienna, by this time he was thirty-two years of age (http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exhibitions/Mind/Trance.html). According to one source, his first claim to fame revolved around an incident where it is said that he cured a blind girl. However, this turned out only to be a reversal of her hysteria that he actually performed (http://www.geocities.com/Vienna/8536/). According to another source, Mesmer's real first case was in 1773 when he met a young woman who was "suffering from a variety of recurring physical ailments". He then tried to relate the fluctuation of her symptoms with the tides and deci ded to try to induce a tide in his patient. He asked her to "swallow a solution containing iron and affixed magnets to her stomach and legs". The girl said she felt a "mysterious fluid coursing throughout her body". Miraculously her symptoms started to disappear and with several treatments they vanished. From this, Mesmer gained fame. A few years later, under some sort of pressure, perhaps political, he left Vienna for Paris. Here Mesmer's therapy and healing practices became quite popular (http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exhibitions/Mind/Trance.html). It is in Paris where Mesmer wrote his book called, Reflections on the Discourse of Animal Magnetism . This book contained 27 basic principles that Mesmer held to be true (Fuller 4). Basically, it said that there was a "physical magnetic fluid interconnecting every element of the universe, including human bodies" (http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exhibitions/Mind/Trance.html).This was essentially "Animal Magnetism" (http://www.hcrc.org/diction/m.html). "Mesmer argued that disease resulted from a disequilibrium of this fluid with in the body". To cure this, physicians manipulated these fluids using magnets or their hands in order to channel this energy from the universe at large into the patients body (http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exhibitions/Mind/Trance.html). This was the agent with which he induced hypnosis in patients (http://www.hcrc.org/diction/m.html). Mesmer went so far as to suggest that "animal magnetism constituted the etheric medium through which sensations of every kind-light, heat, magnetism, electricity- were able to pass from one physical object to another believed that his discovery had removed the basic impediment to scientific progress and that every area of human knowledge would soon undergo rapid transformation and advancement".

Norman Jewisons Movie The Hurricane Essay -- Movie Review Essays

Norman Jewison's Movie "The Hurricane" The problem of racial discrimination has been portrayed in many films in the last 15 years. However, The Hurricane does a masterful job at addressing this issue, and will leave audience members clenching their fists in anger at the injustice that happened to a man named Rubin "Hurricane" Carter. The movie demonstrates the racial inequity that can be found in our judicial system through the impressive acting by Denzel Washington and the direction of Norman Jewison. The Hurricane makes you wonder who else has been wrongfully accused in the past 30 years. The Hurricane creates moments of amazing heartfelt punches dealt by Denzel Washington (Rubin "Hurricane" Carter), Vicellous Reon Shannon (Lezra Martin), and the three Canadian friends, Live Schreiber (Sam), Deborah Unger (Lisa), and John Hanna (Terry). All of the actors and actresses produce feelings of love, camaraderie, and determination that causes the audience to jump up and cheer. The movie starts with the story of Rubin Carter and his fight for the middleweight championship. He lost the match in a rigged bout to a weaker opponent. Although, Rubin dominated the ring, he lost the title. The fight foreshadows the racial discrimination that will be played throughout the movie. Later in the movie in the Lafayette Grill two African-American males of middle build murdered three people at the all white establishment. Rubin Carter and John Artis were accused of being those two men. Carter and Artis went to prison for three life sentences. The future looks slim for Carter, however, a pivotal change comes when Lezra Martin discovers Carter's book. The movie focuses on the portrayal of Rubin Carter as he spends 20 years in prison. The a... ... a way that leaves them cheering at the end, takes this film to another level. Jewison has established himself as a great director and reconfirms that with this movie. He is no stranger to racially intensified films. He directed In the Heat of the Night in 1967 and was slated to direct Malcolm X, but refused after a few key people reacted negatively to the idea of a Caucasian male directing the film. The Hurricane, based on the life of Rubin Carter, brings alive the fears, anger, and frustration that he experienced. The Hurricane is no exception for Washington's stunning performances or Jewison's great directing, so if you are looking for a moving, deep, and engrossing film run to your nearest Blockbuster and rent The Hurricane. It is a movie that needs to be seen not just for its value as a good movie, but for its undeniable call for justice and racial equality.

Poems for Kindergarten (Hamlet Quotes) Essay

Not a mouse stirring, When the cat began purring. Quietly and stealthily away they crept, Fooling the hungry cat, Who sat and wept. Translation: All the mice sat very still like statues when they heard the cat coming their way. They knew that she was coming their way because they could hear her purring. They decided to escape. Then very quietly, almost like thieves, the mice ran away. The poor cat began to cry because she could catch no mice to eat. Poem 2: The King of Infinite Space The king of infinite space, Gave the beggar a bag of lace. † I give thee a bag of peas† The beggar replied â€Å"But what’s the use milord, For its Gold I seek† Translation: A very rich king who ruled over the world and all of space out of generosity gives a beggar a beautiful bag made of lace. He believes that the beggar his hungry, so he fills the bag with peas for the beggar to it and tell him so. But the beggar is a greedy man. He is not in the least happy with the food given to him. He wants to become rich. So the ungrateful beggar tells the king that the food is of no use because he was expecting money – gold coins. Poem 3: Sweets to the Sweet Sweets to the sweet, Lemons to the sour. It’s good to be good, And bad to be bad. Translation: Sweets like candy and chocolates are given to people who are nice and sweet. Sour eatables like lemon are given to people who are sour. Sweet people are like sweets because they leave a good flavor in the mouth and sour people like lemons leave a bad taste. It is a good thing to be good because everybody will love you. It’s bad to be bad because no one will like you or love you, if you are mean to others. Poem 4: To Be or Not To Be To be like an oak tree, With roots spreading far. Or be a pretty daisy, the little pink flower. So what will it be? Oh boy, Oh boy, to be or not to be. Translation: Do you want to be as strong as the oak tree, with your power spreading far and wide like its roots. Or do you want to be a pretty daisy flower that makes people happy with its beauty and nice smell. So what will it be? It is a difficult decision to make is it not, deciding whether to be one thing or not. Poem 5: The Memory is Green The memory is green, Of Granny’s house so white and clean. I smudged the walls with colors black and blue Don’t blame. I was bored and had nothing to do. The memory is green when granny spanked me, With her red wooden brush, that was so heavy. I remember my Granny’s house very clearly. It seems just like yesterday that I was there. It was a nice little house with white walls all spick and span. But I was feeling naught and also I had nothing to do. So I took some colors and with my muddy hands I made prints and drawings on the walls. I also clearly remember the brush my gran spanked me with and it sure was heavy.

Gamma Ray Penetration Of Lead essays

Gamma Ray Penetration Of Lead essays The amount of radiation that occurs to the matter depends on two things: what radiation is used. what material is used for absorption. There are three types of radiation; they are Alpha, Beta and Gamma. Gamma radiation has two types of radiation, nuclear which is dangerous and electromagnetic which is not dangerous. Gamma rays are the opposite of alpha particles in a way. They penetrate a long way into materials without being stopped. This means they are weakly ionising because they bend to pass through rather than colliding with atoms. Eventually they hit something and do damage. The only thing that block Gamma rays is thick lead and concrete. In the experiment I will be using lead. In 1896 Henri Becquerel was investigating materials, which glow when placed in an x-ray beam. Curious to find out if strong sunlight caused uranium salt to glow. It was clear that uranium salts emit penetrating radiation, which can blacken photographic film. More interested in x-rays, Becquerel passed the challenge of further investigations on to one of his students, Marie Curie. Within a few years, Marie Curie discovered other elements such as thorium, which are radioactive. One of these elements, radium, was found to be over 1 million time more radioactive than uranium. Photographic film can be used to detect radiation. Radiation was first discovered by accident when Henri Becquerel left some uranium on some photographic plates, which became fogged by it. These days photographic film is useful way of detecting radiation. Workers in the nuclear industry or those using x-ray equipment such as dentists and radiographers wear little blue badges which have a little bit of photographic film in them. The film is checked every now and then to see if it has become fogged too quickly, which would mean the person was getting to much radiation. The nature of radioactive radiation. Alpha radiation was s...

Counseling Individuals with Alzheimers

Counseling Individuals with Alzheimers Free Online Research Papers Providing Counseling for Individuals with Alzheimer’s In this article it gives the reason for the counseling and the steps and process. The article states that the counselor must have self-awareness and preparedness on the material before he or she holds a counseling session on the material. It states that a counselor must be aware of his or her own biases toward older people so that this would not hinder the listening process. The article also touches on the structure of environment because individuals with Alzheimers have difficulty focusing and planning; therefore, structuring their environment becomes very important. This article also talks about the importance of educating the caregivers because this is an important aspect of counseling. Counselor who work with the caregivers will produce a considerable amount of relief through education on effective strategies for providing care. In the sessions the counselor provides the members with information for social support, respite care, information on medical treatment, and information on doctors and legal issues. Counselors should also aid caregivers in forming support systems by referring to the local chapters of the Alzheimer’s Association. Counselors, through their attentiveness, can help prevent the already difficult process of negotiating a debilitating chronic illness from becoming even more unbearable. Reference Page Granello, Paul F., and Matthew S. Fleming. Providing counseling for individuals with Alzheimers disease and their caregivers.(Clinical report). Adultspan Journal 7.1 (Spring 2008): 13(13). Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale. Memphis Shelby County Public Library. 20 July 2008 Research Papers on Counseling Individuals with Alzheimer'sThree Concepts of PsychodynamicNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesThe Project Managment Office SystemStandardized TestingPETSTEL analysis of IndiaLifes What IfsHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Essay

Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, Liberias Iron Lady

Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, Liberias Iron Lady Ellen Johnson was born on  October  29, 1938, in Monrovia, the capital of Liberia, amongst the descendants of original colonists of Liberia (ex-African slaves from America, who promptly on arrival set about enslaving the indigenous people using the social system of their old American masters as a basis for their new society). These descendants are known in Liberia as Americo-Liberians. Causes of Liberias Civil Conflict The social inequalities between indigenous Liberians and the Americo-Liberians have lead to much of the political and social strife in the country, as leadership bounced between dictators representing opposing groups (Samuel Doe replacing William Tolbert, Charles Taylor replacing Samuel Doe). Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf rejects the suggestion that she is one of the elite: If such a class existed, it has been obliterated over the last few years from intermarriages and social integration. Gaining an Education From 1948 to 55 Ellen Johnson studied accounts and economics at the College of West Africa in Monrovia. After marriage at the age of 17 to James Sirleaf, she traveled to America (in 1961) and continued her studies, achieving a degree from the University of Colorado. From 1969 to 71 she read economics at Harvard, gaining a masters degree in public administration. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf then returned to Liberia and began working in William Tolberts (True Whig Party) government. A Start in Politics Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf served as Minister of Finance from 1972 to 73 but left after a disagreement over public spending. As the 70s progressed, life under Liberias one-party state became more polarised- to the benefit of the Americo-Liberian elite. On April 12, 1980, Master Sergeant Samuel Kayon Doe, a member of the indigenous Krahn ethnic group, seized power in a military coup and President William Tolbert was executed along with several members of his cabinet by firing squad. Life under Samuel Doe With the Peoples Redemption Council now in power, Samuel Doe began a purge of government. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf narrowly escaped- choosing exile in Kenya. From 1983 to 85 she served as Director of Citibank in Nairobi, but when Samuel Doe declared himself president of the Republic in 1984 and unbanned political parties, she decided to return. During the 1985 elections, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf campaigned against Doe and was placed under house arrest. An Economists Life in Exile Sentenced to ten years in prison, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf spent just a short time incarcerated, before being allowed to leave the country once again as an exile. During the 1980s she served as Vice President of both the African Regional Office of Citibank, in Nairobi, and of (HSCB) Equator Bank, in Washington. Back in Liberia civil unrest erupted once more. On 9 September 1990, Samuel Doe was killed by a splinter group from Charles Taylors National Patriotic Front of Liberia. A New Regime From 1992 to 97 Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf worked as Assistant Administrator, and then Director, of the UN Development Program Regional Bureau for Africa (essentially an Assistant Secretary-General of the UN). Meanwhile, in Liberia, an interim government was put in power, led by a succession of four un-elected officials (the last of whom, Ruth Sando Perry, was Africas first female leader). By 1996 the presence of West African peacekeepers created a lull in the civil war, and elections were held. A First Attempt at the Presidency Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf returned to Liberia in 1997 to contest the election. She came second to Charles Taylor (gaining 10% of the vote compared to his 75%) out of a field of 14 candidates. The election was declared free and fair by international observers. (Johnson-Sirleaf campaigned against Taylor and was charged with treason.) By 1999 civil war had returned to Liberia, and Taylor was accused of interfering with his neighbors, fomenting unrest and rebellion. A New Hope from Liberia On 11 August 2003, after much persuasion, Charles Taylor handed power over to his deputy Moses Blah. The new interim government and rebel groups signed an historic peace accord and set about installing a new head of state. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf was proposed as a possible candidate, but in the end, the diverse groups selected Charles Gyude Bryant, a political neutral. Johnson-Sirleaf served as head of the Governance Reform Commission. Liberias 2005 Election Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf played an active role in the transitional government as the country prepared for the 2005 elections and eventually stood for president against her rival the ex-international footballer, George Manneh Weah. Despite the elections being called fair and orderly, Weah repudiated the result, which gave a majority to Johnson-Sirleaf, and the announcement of Liberias new president was postponed, pending an investigation. On  November 23, 2005, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf was declared the winner of the Liberian election and confirmed as the countrys next president. Her inauguration, attended by the likes of US First Lady Laura Bush and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, took place on Monday, January 16, 2006.Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, the divorced mother of four boys and grandmother to six children, is Liberias first elected female president, as well as the first elected female leader on the continent.

The Last Supper Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Last Supper - Research Paper Example For centuries, Jesus Christ is the most prominent religious figure. His life is mostly chronicled in the Bible and a historical account of Tacitus mentioned about the death of Christus in the hands of Pontius Pilatus (Canfield 144).Prior to his death, Christ and his disciples were recorded to have the supper before Passover and this later on would be one of the important events not only in the history of Christianity but will also shape the sociological, cultural and political history of the world. Immortalized in painting as early as the 1300s (Dyas 139), the famous scene depicting the last meal of Jesus Christ with his disciples was rendered in varied styles by artists from different art genres. Two of the most famous versions of the last supper were Last Supper created by Renaissance painter Leonardo Da Vinci (Kleiner 582) and the painting by Mannerist Jacopo Robusti generally known as Tintoretto with the same title created in 1594 (615). Differences can be observed immediately up on viewing the two last supper paintings. Both paintings vary mainly because the two painters belong to different periods and relatively, the social, political and cultural situations during their respective times had influenced Da Vinci and Tintoretto in creating their renditions of the last supper.Aside from the surrounding conditions during the era of the two artists, a close comparison of the two versions with the Biblical accounts about the famous last meal would enlighten as which artist had depicted the scene exactly or was close enough to what really transpired during the night before the Passover. Probing on the accuracy of the two paintings, may demystify the misconceptions regarding the last supper which in recent times had largely influenced the social, political and cultural beliefs. An example of which is the controversial story about the last supper in Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown. A fresco made for the church refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Italy, Da Vinciâ₠¬â„¢s Last Supper measures 13 feet and 9 inches by 29 feet and 10 inches (4.2 meters by 8.9 meters), oil and tempera on the plaster wall were used by the artist (Kleiner 582). The symmetrical painting depicts Jesus Christ at the center of the tabl

Aaker and Keller's brand extension theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Aaker and Keller's brand extension theory - Essay Example Aaker and Keller presented three dimensions of the relevance in terms of:(b) Hypotheses 2: The two products (original and extended) need to fit together in some perspectives for consumers to perceive enhanced transfer of quality from original brand to the new brand. The researchers argued that this transfer becomes weaker if direct fits are not visible.A number of researchers have presented their perspectives on the research of Aaker and Keller supported by their own surveys & experiments. The author shall not present any validation of arguments against the hypotheses of the researchers but hereby agrees that an organization need to deeply study the customer perceptions about new product ideas generated to benefit from brand extensions. Moreover, it is not easy to get consumer perceptions by just presenting the new product ideas to consumers because the attitudes towards new products need their tangible visualization rather than imaginations. Hence, the author proposes that organizat ions should first develop a pilot of new products incorporating the target quality that the product designers intend to incorporate and then carry out intensive surveys among consumers that already are loyal to the parent brand. Pointed questions should be asked to the consumers pertaining to the matching of new products classes with the original product classes. The author proposes that the branding should also present the results of surveys conducted by organization such that the consumers feel a sense of participation in development of the new product lines. As reiterated by Aaker and Kelly, the fitment of original and new product classes is very critical to achieve positive attitudes of consumers pertaining to the brand extensions. Hence, the organizations should develop appropriate measurement criteria and collect enough data from the markets to accurately measure the "Degree of Fitness" between the two product classes. Supporting the viewpoints of Aaker and Kelly, the author s uggests that the fitness should not only be the only criteria but the quality of the new product

Emotional Intelligence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Emotional Intelligence - Essay Example According to Goleman, emotional intelligence is the management of feelings so that they are expressed appropriately and effectively in order to allow people to work together for a common goal (Leadership Organization 2012: 42). Additional definitions given include one that calls it the capacity to understand and use emotional information, either from others or from one’s own, accordingly. The concept of emotional intelligence is tied around the ability to be aware and express emotions; moreover, it is the ability to be aware of other people’s feelings, establish interpersonal relationships and the ability to manage and regulate emotions. The other two aspects of emotional intelligence are the ability to realistically and flexibly cope with the immediate situation and solve problems of personal and interpersonal nature as they arise, as well as generate positive feelings that allow one to be motivated adequately in order to achieve personal goals. In addition, emotional intelligence is known to affect the personality traits that an individual exhibits, which include sociability, extraversion, self-esteem, persistence and optimism. This is because, by people understanding their own, and other people’s feelings, people can manage relationships appropriately. Therefore, emotional intelligence is crucial in influencing people and leading them to achieve certain goals that in which one has an interest. In leadership, it is crucial to have emotional intelligence and apply it to all situations that involve relationships with people in order to affect the outcome that people under one’s leadership. This is particularly so in transformational leadership styles. Moreover, in this form of leadership, a leader operates at the emotional level of transforming people and their outcomes (Leadership Organization 2012: 18). Therefore, in transformational leadership, emotional intelligence is used to inspire involvement, loyalty, commitment and performa nce (Leadership Organization 2012: 18). In addition, this is done by leaders identifying themselves as a force and commissioners of change through taking up that role and embodying with it (Leadership Organization 2012: 18). This is concerning the behavior they portray and the influence they seek to mount on their followers. Thus, leaders using the transformational style of leadership are able to motivate their followers to do more than what they intend to do, and that which they consider themselves capable of achieving by providing a sense of belonging (Deloitte 2012: 10). Emotions are expressed in offering meaning and offering challenging tasks to followers in order to motivate them. This shows the role of emotional intelligence in offering motivation in leadership by letting one’s followers own the goals of an organization and create, and the leader creates an enthusiastic environment in which to work. In addition, transformational leaders and emotional intelligence go han d in hand owing to the leaders characteristics. This is because transformational leaders conduct themselves in ways that are admirable, respectable and that can be trusted by their followers. Thus, they are role models for their followers by portraying the goals and needs of an organization as their own. Moreover, this behavior works on the emotions of the followers by provoking a desire to achieve together with a formidable leader. An additional way in which transformational leadership and emotional intelligence are related is in the opportunities offered by a leader concerning furthering the ideas of their followers. This occurs by leaders engaging their followers in exploring ideas, which builds the relationship between the two parties (Brady et al. 2008: 58). Therefore, the relationship between leaders and followers gets a boost by interacting, exchanging ideas, challenging assumptions and developing new ideas for the betterment of the organization (Leadership Organization 2012: 18). Furthermore, on leadership styles, emotional intelli

Causes and costs of inflation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Causes and costs of inflation - Essay Example Inflation is defined as "an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy" (Mankiw & Taylor, 2006, p. 817). The rate of inflation which is the percentage change in the overall level of prices, varies greatly from time to time depending on the condition of the economy and the stage of development of a country. Inflation is generally measured by calculating the cost of a basket of goods and services bought by an average consumer. This is measurement is represented in the form of an index known as the Consumer Price Index (CPI). The rate of inflation is a cause of concern for policy makers, economists and the public alike. While most laypeople consider the existence of inflation to be undesirable, (because an increase in price levels without a corresponding increase in wages signifies a fall in purchasing power) economist tend to discount the much overplayed costs of inflation. To arrive at a conclusive opinion about the significance of the costs of inflation, it is first necessary to understand what causes inflation The main reason behind cases of high or persistent inflation is the growth in the quantity of money available in the economy. Monetarists believe that changes in the quantity of money are a direct cause of inflation. The quantity of money available in an economy is known as the money supply and is usually under the control of the government. The money supply in an economy is usually measured by the availability of currency (notes and coins), checkable deposits (demand deposits) as well as saving deposits, plus wholesale currency deposits, and in the broadest sense foreign currency deposits may also be included. Different measures of money are used according to need but the most common is M2 (Cash in circulation plus demand deposits). (Sloman, 1999, p. 560) The quantity theory of money states that people hold money because they wish to engage in transactions to buy goods and services. The greater the need for transactions the greater will be the amount of money held. The amount of money held is expressed through the following equation, where M=quantity of money, V= velocity of money-the rate at which money circulates, P= average price of a transaction and T= total number of transactions over a period of time. M V = P T It is more useful and practical to substitute T with Y, which is the level of Output of an economy. The level of output will determine the number of transaction over a period of time and thus the equation changes to M V = P Y This equates the quantity of money available to the value of goods and services of an economy (GDP). The velocity of money is held to be constant to make the model simpler. If one variable on the left side of the equation increases then there should be a corresponding increase in one of the variables on the right side. If velocity is taken to be constant, and level of output of an economy is taken to be a function of the factors of production, then any changes in M will result in corresponding change in the price level: P. Thus if an increase in money supply causes the nominal GDP to increase and the there is no increase in the output of goods and services then it is an obvious conclusion that the price levels have increased. The quantity theory thus implies that the price level is proportional to the money supply (Mankiw, 2003, pp.

The South Vindicated from the Treason and Fanaticism of the Northern Assignment

The South Vindicated from the Treason and Fanaticism of the Northern Abolitionists (1836) - Assignment Example He explained the life of a poor laborer in the north is far worse than the life of a southern salve. A northern poor laborer might work hard, unrelenting jobs under horrific conditions and still not make enough income to support himself and his family. He may do this his whole life and never come up in the world or provide for his loved ones. He shares that the experience of a southern slave is much more secure. Although they are work hard and tirelessly, they are provided comfortable living arrangements, proper food, and better hygiene and treatment of sickness than the northern worker would ever receive. A slave has fewer worries in life and security, the author believes that the slave’s existence is far more attractive than that of a northern laborer. He believed that educating slaves was dangerous and unfair. It is dangerous for slaves to be influenced by the false messages of abolitionists would rile them up and make them eager to seek freedom, which in turn would force southern whites to take greater and stricter measures to keep the salves in line. By educating them would be to, potentially, expose them to information that will only misinform them and lead them down a path that will only end in punishment and pain. He believes that the southern way of life is more a reflection of what human beings should be like. Because slavery relieves the white man from the day-to-day labors and basic necessity concerns, like food, income, and shelter, they can focus on more important things. Many men had more time to involve themselves in politics and educating themselves. All white men in the south are equal to all other men because there is no labor class per say as in the north. This country was founded on the principals that all men are created equal. The south believes that statement only applies to the white man. Therefore the universal mentality of equality in the south is closer to

Causes and costs of inflation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Causes and costs of inflation - Essay Example Inflation is defined as "an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy" (Mankiw & Taylor, 2006, p. 817). The rate of inflation which is the percentage change in the overall level of prices, varies greatly from time to time depending on the condition of the economy and the stage of development of a country. Inflation is generally measured by calculating the cost of a basket of goods and services bought by an average consumer. This is measurement is represented in the form of an index known as the Consumer Price Index (CPI). The rate of inflation is a cause of concern for policy makers, economists and the public alike. While most laypeople consider the existence of inflation to be undesirable, (because an increase in price levels without a corresponding increase in wages signifies a fall in purchasing power) economist tend to discount the much overplayed costs of inflation. To arrive at a conclusive opinion about the significance of the costs of inflation, it is first necessary to understand what causes inflation The main reason behind cases of high or persistent inflation is the growth in the quantity of money available in the economy. Monetarists believe that changes in the quantity of money are a direct cause of inflation. The quantity of money available in an economy is known as the money supply and is usually under the control of the government. The money supply in an economy is usually measured by the availability of currency (notes and coins), checkable deposits (demand deposits) as well as saving deposits, plus wholesale currency deposits, and in the broadest sense foreign currency deposits may also be included. Different measures of money are used according to need but the most common is M2 (Cash in circulation plus demand deposits). (Sloman, 1999, p. 560) The quantity theory of money states that people hold money because they wish to engage in transactions to buy goods and services. The greater the need for transactions the greater will be the amount of money held. The amount of money held is expressed through the following equation, where M=quantity of money, V= velocity of money-the rate at which money circulates, P= average price of a transaction and T= total number of transactions over a period of time. M V = P T It is more useful and practical to substitute T with Y, which is the level of Output of an economy. The level of output will determine the number of transaction over a period of time and thus the equation changes to M V = P Y This equates the quantity of money available to the value of goods and services of an economy (GDP). The velocity of money is held to be constant to make the model simpler. If one variable on the left side of the equation increases then there should be a corresponding increase in one of the variables on the right side. If velocity is taken to be constant, and level of output of an economy is taken to be a function of the factors of production, then any changes in M will result in corresponding change in the price level: P. Thus if an increase in money supply causes the nominal GDP to increase and the there is no increase in the output of goods and services then it is an obvious conclusion that the price levels have increased. The quantity theory thus implies that the price level is proportional to the money supply (Mankiw, 2003, pp.

Sturken and Cartwright's Account of Ideological Considerations Essay

Sturken and Cartwright's Account of Ideological Considerations - Essay Example Though films and television programs still use similar techniques as those from the OJ Simpson era, News Media at least must have gotten better, right? The question is both yes and no. In the recent Trayvon Martin scandal, than man that admitted to killing him, George Zimmerman, had many of his own pictures portrayed throughout the media. While media did not make the explicitly editorial decisions they made in the OJ Simpson case. This essay will not discuss the particulars of the horrible tragedy that occurred on the night that Trayvon Martin was killed, but rather the editorial choices that occurred in the portrayal of George Zimmerman. The choice of photographs used on television or news portrayals of the man, however, were chosen specifically to underline his supposed guilt or innocence. The most commonly used image of George Zimmerman, especially immediately after the tragedy, was a mug shot for an unrelated incident some days before, presented below. The choice to use this imag e immediately was somewhat understandable: mug shots are quite accessible to news media, and this would have been one of the only pictures available in the opening hours of the tragedy. Quickly, however, some other images began becoming available, including the one presented left. Both pictures represent George Zimmerman`s likeness fairly well, and they even have somewhat similar framing. Upon the second, and many other photo`s wide use in news media, however, the mug shot image continued to be used quite frequently. The choice of which photos to used represented an ideological slant on the case in fairly clear ways. The initial photograph of George Zimmerman is clearly identifiable as a mug shot taken by police during an investigation. There are very few other cases in which a subject would be framed so narrowly (as for an identification) on a white background with a flat, unsmiling face. Furthermore, and unofortunately for Zimmerman, he was wearing a particularly brightly colored orange shirt on the day that the photograph was taken. Orange is constantly used throughout American prisons as a way to identify prisoners should they escape, make them readily viewable from a distance if the correctional officer needs to see the, and so forth. An unsmiling face, as is used in a mug-shot, also frequently makes people look cold or mean, because there is a social more that people in photographs smile. Finally, the last aspect is the color of Zimmerman`s skin. Zimmerman, a white Hispanic, had parts of his skin look much darker because of the contrast from the glare on his cheeks, which also highlighted his black hair. As ironic as it is to racially profile a person accused of killing through racial profiling, many viewers probably connected Zimmerman`s ethnic heritage, especially in the context of a mug shot, with criminality, deviancy, violence or other social ills. Zimmerman`s second and other subsequent photos differ greatly. He is smiling, for one, and the frame o f the photo is slightly wider, making it look more like a year book photo or something else. He is also much more nicely dressed, in a suit, and has a much more uniform skin tone, making it look less dark than in the mug shot. Gone is the probably villainous person who certainly got arrested and generally looks ``no good,``

Intercultural aspect of culture Essay Example for Free

Intercultural aspect of culture Essay During the first day of the workshop, I did not completely understand the real meaning of culture. I did not even have a single definition for the term culture. Many questions came into my mind such as, â€Å"What is culture? What are the factors that create culture? What is the scope of culture? Does culture improve itself or not? Although, I started the inquiry on the concept of culture without certain answers for these questions, I had figured them out step by step during that day. I started to find answers for most of the questions that I faced. I finally understood what culture was and why different people with different cultures had different behaviors. By understanding the factors that influenced culture, I started to learn its importance to the parties who got involved in particular conflicts. Throughout that day, I comprehended why people with different cultures got involved in particular conflicts and what were their objectives. I started to give answers for these queries. They might need someone whom they can air their grievances or opinions with. Moreover, they might only wish that others would respect their culture as it was. In the role play, I learned that listening skill was very helpful in making the parties who were involved in the conflict feel better. Also, they should be given the chance to continue telling their stories without any interruption. I had also learned that I could be able to interact with them simply through body language such as moving my head up and down which tells, â€Å"I understand you. Keep going. † Furthermore, these skills would give me the chance to get as much information as possible and understand the parties’ cultures. Personally, I think that having much understanding of other cultures using the skills mentioned earlier would help me adapt with their behaviors and become more flexible when dealing with them. Culture’s factors such as religion, climate and geography play very significant roles in parties’ behavior. These explain why different countries have different cultures. Finally, all ideas and skills that I had learned during the first day of the workshop let me pay a close attention on understanding other cultures, respecting their beliefs and values as I want other people do the same thing when they cross my culture. I would try to use these ideas and skills in my daily life – simply by listening to other people and respecting them. Before evolving an intercultural model of conflict resolution it is important to understand and identify aspects of culture that lead to creation of the framework of conflict. The cultural spectrum holds different shades for a person, a society and a nation, accordingly helping each of them to assimilate and adapt to a common identity that is defined and shaped by culture (Holliday, Hyde and Kullman, 2004). In the process of evolving this collective identity, culture transcends its traditional role of providing an aggregate set of beliefs, customs, norms, values, ethics, traditions, moral, social and legal codes, perceptions, and philosophy, to become the overall physical framework for the society to function. Culture attains a real form, rendering a three dimensional living space for people to experience its living force ((Holliday, Hyde and Kullman, 2004)). Culture is strongly related with geographical setting of a place, religion, ethnicity, and race, explaining why different countries have different cultures, and also why places on seashore share common elements of culture that is quite different from culture of mountainous places. The imprinting of culture on ways a person thinks, acts, perceives the environment and models his/her reaction is very strong and virtually indelible, determining every aspect of human behavior and giving rise to cultural identity in addition to individual and national identity. Although the classic rational choice framework says that people are independent in choice of their behavior and approach towards events, its seen that at subtle levels the structural model provided by culture acts as final determinant in predicting a person, a society and a nation. Although culture is dynamic, evolving and continuously upgrading itself, in essence, these changes occur within the context of culture’s own timeframe. One of the most important contribution of culture to human civilization is the orientation provided towards other cultures, making the culture in question receptive, tolerant, indifferent or outright hostile towards different cultures. Societies are seldom mono-cultural, displaying a range of cultural traits, achieved through generations of trades, contact, and cross cultural mixing (Holliday, Hyde and Kullman, 2004). However, although for people belonging to a particular culture, their culture would hardly seem complex, the cultural realities are hidden beneath the surface, difficult to observe and discern from outside. These improper understanding and imperfect perceptions of culture often give rise to conflict when different cultures are required to meet or come across.

The Competitive Environment Of British Petroleum Management Essay

The Competitive Environment Of British Petroleum Management Essay This paper is basically about the analysis of British Petroleum PLC (Bp). The analysis covers the competitive environment of the company in terms of its stance in the midst of its various competitors and also how attractive is the industry in which the British Petroleum company belongs to. Apart from the competitive environment, this report also identifies the key business strategies of the company and also the various resources and capabilities of the company that has given the company an edge over it other competitors. In analyzing the competitive environment, business strategy and identification of the various resources and capabilities of British Petroleum, the following frame works will be used; sporter five force, strategic groups, Bowmans strategy clock, value chain analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. OVERVIEW OF BRITISH PETROLEUM (BP) The British petroleum is one of the worlds largest energy companies and also one of the largest vertically integrated oil and gas companies in the world, which provides its customers with fuel for transportation, energy for heat and lighting, and also retail services and petrochemicals products for everyday use. The BP Plc operates across six continents which include: Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, North America and South America and their products and services are available in more than 100 countries in the world. British petroleums operations involve exploration, production of gas and crude oil, marketing and also trading of power, and natural gas liquids. British Petroleums headquartered is situated in London United Kingdom, and it has employs about 80,300 people as part of its labor force. Bp has various brands which include the Ampm, Arco, Castrol, Aral, Wild bean cafà © and Bp itself and the energy mix of the British Petroleum is a mixture of oil, gas, solar, wind and biofuels. BP is a company which focuses mainly on petroleum, but has some interest in alternative energy which shows that the company does not only specialize on oil and gas only like some of its competitors does. THE COMPETITIVE ENVIRONMENT OF BRITISH PETROLEUM (BP) . In analyzing the competitive environment of the British petroleum, as earlier stated, a very useful tool to consider is the five forces model of competition which was developed by Professor Michael Porter of the Harvard Business School in 1980, this model identifies factors that affect the organizations competitiveness in the industry and also help the firm to adopted the appropriate strategy in order to enhance its competitive advantage and also protect itself from threat as well. The five forces identified by porter include: Threat of entrants from organisations currently outside the industry Power of suppliers i.e. providers of inputs e.g. staff, IT, accommodation Power of buyers i.e. recipients of products/services Threat of substitutes i.e. things customers might buy instead Competitors/rivalry competition within the industry THREAT OF NEW ENTRANCE: The threat of entrance into the oil and gas industry is Low due to the fact that there is high barrier of entrance into the industry. Some of the companies that constitutes the oil and gas industry like British Petroleum uses heavy and very expensive equipments at well sites For example, pumping trucks and other huge equipments, huge capital investment expenses is involved, such as High infrastructure cost i.e. pipeline, road access in fields, land acquisition etc.  Availability of human resources in terms of scarcity of subsurface reservoir engineer and geologist all this contribute to the high barrier of entrance into the industry. POWER OF THE SUPPLIER: The bargaining power of suppliers is relatively high and this is driven by the presence of high cost of switching from one supplier to another and also the presence of relatively small number of energy and alternative energy suppliers (concentrated suppliers), also some of the buyers such as Bp and some other companies that constitute the industry are vertical integration companies so they might not even have the need to want to require the services of this suppliers so the power of the suppliers is Medium. POWER OF BUYERS:  The balance of power shifts toward buyers. Oil is a commodity and one companys oil or oil drilling services is not that much different from another companys and this  leads buyers to  go in favor of lower prices and or better contract terms.  The power of the buyer will be regarded has being Medium because buyers are powerful and can switch from the consumption of Bp products to another oil and gas companys product and at the same time an individual buyers decision does not necessarily have an impact on the company. THREAT OF SUBSTITUTES: Threat of substitutes is Low and the  Substitutes for the oil and gas industry includes alternative fuels such as coal, gas, solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity and nuclear energy which is still in the developing phase and also involves high cost of production. Oil is of great importance; it is not only used in fuelling cars alone, it is also used in the production of plastics and other materials. Majority of the means of transportation still relies heavily on oil and Oil is needed in order to generate electricity which implies that oil and gas would be depended on rather than the alternative due to its level of development and high cost of production. COMPETITIVE RIVALRY:   The level of competitive rivalry is high; the industry is characterized by big companies which produce low differentiated products and there is low threat of substitute and also low threat of new entrance into the oil and gas industry. Another tool that can also be used in the analysis of the competitive environment of the British Petroleum is the strategy group framework by Porter in 1979. According to porter, a strategic group is defined as a set of companies within an industry pursuing strategies that are similar to each other and different from firms outside the group on one or more key dimensions of their strategy. In terms of the oil and gas industry which BP belongs to, the level of competition is very high because major players in the industry such as Royal Dutch shell, Bp, Exxon Mobil, Total, chevron, and Conoco Phillips all adopt similar strategy and competing on similar bases which is adaptation of a vertical integration to an extent and they also produces similar range of products. BUSINESS STRATEGY OF BRITISH PETROLEUM OVER PAST 5YEARS In analyzing the business strategy being adopted by Bp over the past 5 years, the Bowmans strategic clock would be a useful tool. The strategy clock considers both the price and the perceived added value of goods and services produced by a company and compares it to that of its other competitors. Placing the Bp group under the strategic clock show that the company uses Hybrid strategy which means that they operate at a low cost based, reinvest in low price and differentiated in operation. BP is one of the largest operators and also one of the most well established globally, the company operates both in the upstream and downstream operation and its operations is also increasingly diversified or differentiated in production offering various oil products to the market. At the same time British Petroleum (BP) has a cost base that permits low prices and which is sufficient for reinvestment to maintain bases for differentiation. BP has been adopting the Hybrid strategy for a long period of time now and the sole aim of the strategy is to achieve differentiation and a price lower than that of BPs other competitors.

Edward Saids Orientalism Essay -- History Colonialism Orientalism Es

Edward Said's Orientalism Western civilization, generally speaking, is extremely egotistical and has the view that Western culture is superior to all others. They believe they are more civilized and more educated than the rest of the world and because of this, stems the idea that it is the duty of Western civilization to take other, less developed societies under their wing. These concepts of supremacy and domination are closely related to Said's ideas of Orientalism. In his book, Orientalism, Edward Said explains in detail exactly what he believes the word Orientalism means. He tries to prove his concepts through the words of statesmen, including Britain's Evelyn Baring Cromer. Cromer's words reflect the concepts introduced by Said. According to Said, one definition of Orientalism is that it is a "style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between 'the Orient' and the 'Occident'." This is connected to the idea that Western society, or Europe in this case, is superior in comparison to cultures that are non-European, or the Orient. This means that Orientalism is a kind of racism held toward anyone not European. Said wrote that Orientalism was "a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient." This Western idea of the Orient explains why so many European countries occupied lands they believed to be Oriental. This first concept of Orientalism is blatantly reflected in the words of Evelyn Baring Cromer. Cromer was England's representative in Egypt between 1882 and 1907. He believed in European supremacy and called Egyptians, and all other people he considered Oriental, subject races. He justified European occupation in Egypt with this idea of superio... ...e. This idea is shown through Cromer's words as well. Two quotes perfectly show what Said is trying to get across to the reader. Cromer states: I content myself with noting the fact that somehow or another the Oriental generally acts speaks and thinks in a matter exactly opposite to the European. From this quote he concludes: Europe is always in a position of strength, The Oriental is irrational, depraved, childlike, "different", thus the European is rational, virtuous, mature, "normal". Cromer believes that the Orient would be nothing without Western Civilization. He embodies everything Said means by the term Orientalism including having a superiority complex and over generalizing a large group of people into one category. Cromer clearly is the epitome of what it is to be an Orientalist since he obviously agrees with what Said means by Orientalism.

High Schools :: essays research papers

HIGH SCHOOLS SHOULD BE HI TECH The world is becoming more and more "hi tech" and high schools should keep up. High school should be taught on computers because it would save paper, it would save time, and school supplies would be lighter. The first reason high school should be taught on computers is because it would save paper. If textbooks were on computer disks then trees around the world would be saved. This would make our environment much greener and species that are endangered in the rainforest would be saved. If classes were taught on computers, notes on paper would not be needed. This would save more trees. To sum up, high school should be taught on computers because it would save paper. Another reason that high school should be taught on computers is that it would save class time. Students would not need to flip pages in their textbooks or notebooks to find something that they need. All they would have to do is simply click on a file. Because time is saved, the teacher will be able to fit more information into the lesson for the day. In other words, high school should be taught on computers because it would save class time and more information could be fit into the lesson. As well as saving paper and saving time, high school should be taught on computers because school supplies would be much lighter. A lightweight disk would be much easier to carry unlike having an enormous textbook to drag around all day. Students occasionally develop back problems as a result of the heavy backpacks they must carry.

East Asia Essay

China is considered one of the largest countries in term of land area. This fact causes China to be the most populated nation in the world with over 1. 29 billion of people. Chinese is know for its great civilization and in fact had led the world in the development and progress of the society and economy quite a short time. The Chinese people had also experienced afflictions and sufferings from foreign assaults and chaos within China for a century before the People’s Republic was founded. After the chaos, China had started the national reconstruction and made remarkable development in the first twenty years of economical and social reform. For decades, Chinese was dreaming of Modernization and eventually this dream will suddenly be materialized with the help of Deng Xiaoping who serve as the architect of China’s reform. A three-step strategy was established which includes the doubling of GDP of 1980, quadrupling the GDP by the end of 20th century and finally the realization of modernization for another 30 to 50 years. Since the implementation of the strategic plan, China got a rapid progress. From 1978 to 1998, the rate of economic growth of China averaged to 9. 7 %. Gradually, China has gained its power to become the next super power. In fact, during 2000, China’s GDP leveled up by 8 % which is amazingly exceeded $ 1 trillion US and became a record in the history. The first objective in the modernization plan was achieved in 1987. It was three years ahead of time. In 1995, the second objective was reached which is 5 years earlier. China really made a great leap in terms of economic status. The GDP of China in 1998 is 6. 38 times during 1980. China has continuously moving in the top. According to World Bank, China ranked 6 in with respect to economical level and the trend says that it is expected to be in the 4th place before 2006 ends. In addition to this, China’s annual steel output has increased 700 times in the period of 50 years only which places China in the top when it comes to steel production. China also leads the coal, cement, and cotton and television industry. China’s modernization and great leap have a great significance and contribution not only in China but also in the world. China’s progress is a great help in maintaining global stability. Imagine if China is poverty-stricken and disordered then it would likely to be a disaster to the world. A progressive nation just like China provides a largest market in the world. Also, Chinese people love peace and China has proven how they campaign for world peace. As a permanent member of the United Nations, China is always exhibit fairness, stands for rules and laws and strongly against aggression and dominion. If China became Super Power then it will be big help in promoting world peace and stability. China has reached this kind of development through hard works and discipline. Hopefully this must serve as a good example for other nations which are suffering from economic failure and instability. Once a poor country just like China bounces back and suddenly made it great leap in the world. It seemed that those countries in East Asia have become our leaders. Japan, Korea, Taiwan and China all belong to East Asia are very progressive countries. Just like China, they once experienced chaos but eventually recoiled from this fall and stood firmly to prove that they can rule the world. China, although experienced a defeat and failure in the past, did not stop to pursue their dream; to become economically and socially stable and progressive. With the correct attitude and perception in life, China has gradually reaching their goal. Yes, China is now on the road of becoming the Super Power and we all hope that this would bring prosperity to other nations in the world.

Single Sex Schools

Single Sex Schools In the present era, many of us have heard people, especially parents, discussing different topics concerning their children’s future. What are good things for them and what are not? One of these subjects is which school do you prefer to send your children to, single sex schools or co-ed schools? The answers are different depending on many reasons that support each person’s opinion, but for me I support schooling at single sex schools for the following reasons. First, at single sex schools there are fewer distractions for both boys and girls which lead to increased improvement in grade and test scores thus leading to superior academic achievement. On the contrary, at co-ed schools more fragmentation of attention which reduces the improvement of the education. Second, the students at single sex school have higher educational aspirations, more confidence in their abilities, and more positive attitude toward academics than students have at co-ed schools. Finally, single sex education protects the students from immorality and temptation. As a result, this arrangement will reduce the number of teen pregnancy and the number of students with sexually transmitted diseases that increases at co-education. The only drawback that makes many of the people (parents) not prefer education at these separated schools is the idea that students from single sex schools are more hesitant expressing their views in front of the opposite sex, and they have more trouble forming friendships with the opposite sex as well, but for me that’s not true. I believe they can interact in many different places such as their neighborhoods and other public areas. So let us leave the schools for studying only. In conclusion, I recommend replacing all middle and high schools to single sex schools. Why? Because the game of who likes who, who’s going out with whom, and who’s cool and who’s not, begin in these ages. So to broaden the student’s horizons, to allow them to feel free to explore their own strengths and interests and to create a successful generation I’d say yes to single sex schools. Single Sex Schools Single Sex Schools In the present era, many of us have heard people, especially parents, discussing different topics concerning their children’s future. What are good things for them and what are not? One of these subjects is which school do you prefer to send your children to, single sex schools or co-ed schools? The answers are different depending on many reasons that support each person’s opinion, but for me I support schooling at single sex schools for the following reasons. First, at single sex schools there are fewer distractions for both boys and girls which lead to increased improvement in grade and test scores thus leading to superior academic achievement. On the contrary, at co-ed schools more fragmentation of attention which reduces the improvement of the education. Second, the students at single sex school have higher educational aspirations, more confidence in their abilities, and more positive attitude toward academics than students have at co-ed schools. Finally, single sex education protects the students from immorality and temptation. As a result, this arrangement will reduce the number of teen pregnancy and the number of students with sexually transmitted diseases that increases at co-education. The only drawback that makes many of the people (parents) not prefer education at these separated schools is the idea that students from single sex schools are more hesitant expressing their views in front of the opposite sex, and they have more trouble forming friendships with the opposite sex as well, but for me that’s not true. I believe they can interact in many different places such as their neighborhoods and other public areas. So let us leave the schools for studying only. In conclusion, I recommend replacing all middle and high schools to single sex schools. Why? Because the game of who likes who, who’s going out with whom, and who’s cool and who’s not, begin in these ages. So to broaden the student’s horizons, to allow them to feel free to explore their own strengths and interests and to create a successful generation I’d say yes to single sex schools.

Comparison of Two People in the Same Profession Article - 1

Comparison of Two People in the Same Profession - Article Example To be able to do this, this paper settles on two teachers.     Robots can be exact duplicates whereas, in human beings, all people are unique. It is because of this reason that no single firm can leave the role in making decision role to robots. Moreover, another question can be raised from this fact is: Why are there people to make decisions? The fact of two teachers being on the same level and under the same management and governance does not mean the same level of intellectuality and ability to make decisions. The degree to how fast an individual can make a right decision varies from one person to the other depending on a number of factors. Some of these factors range from inborn capability, experiences in life, age, gender, family backgrounds to the level of education. A crisis of the same magnitude presented to two teachers can be mandated to have different responses if the crisis is not numerical. In the same manner, response to decisions made by the management can vary no matter the fact that they can be trained to respond to such. These differences, however, do not despite the fact that it is possible to make a similar decision or give similar reasons for a crisis (Yengoyan 14). These two teachers can be agitated by different occurrences in a classroom, for instance, one can be so furious with a student who does not hand in his or her assignment in time while the other can get so angry with one who is late for classes. None of the two makes one a lesser teacher or vice-versa, but the situation acts independently to bring out the diversity of people although in the same field. At this juncture, it is good to state that either teacher or both could be in the profession out of lack, passion, family reasons or even religious reasons. A teacher in the profession out of passion is quite different from that is in it because of any other reason. To start with the former will have an inner driving force to work while the latter will work out of external forc es. Amazingly, both perform to the expectation of the organization. The diversity of reasons unto why one is a teacher is by its own an explanation for a myriad of responses in the teaching field. It is because of the diversity of these reasons that explain the difference between teachers when faced with a challenge. For example, when a teacher reprimands a student out of misconduct and the student takes him or her in a court of law. No matter the sentence of the court the fact of being to a court of the law may either make one feel humiliated or a rise in self-esteem. The capability that one can be allured into the wind of a riot or a strikeout of poor work conditions can also have its basis on the same reasons. The reasons for the dynamic behavior of teachers also have an association with the reasons for being in the profession.

A Tour to Maasai Mara Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

A Tour to Maasai Mara - Assignment Example At first, I was worried because I had never taken a flight in such a big airplane. I also had the phobia of heights. My parents seemed relaxed probably because they were used to flying. Air hostesses were moving around the plane checking whether the passengers required any assistance. We were even served with drinks. My brother and I took coffee while my parents took wine. After eight hours, the plane landed on Nairobi’s Jomo Kenyatta international airport. â€Å"We are now in Kenya† bellowed my dad. There were two guys waiting for us at the airport and were holding placards bearing my parents’ name. They took us to a waiting van that drove us into a hotel in the city center where were to stay. The two guys were from a tour company with which my dad had made reservations prior to our journey. People from this city looked friendly and were always willing to help us. We were to visit several tourist destinations in Kenya and later Tanzania, a country that neighbor’s Kenya. We first toured Maasai Mara, a region is known world over due to the great wildebeest migration. The aircraft landed on a small airfield in the middle of the lowlands amidst lions and running giraffe. What I saw in Maasai Mara perplexed me. I had never seen a movement of animals as huge as the wildebeest migration. Our tour guide explained that over three million wildebeest migrate from Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park to Kenya’s Maasai Mara National Reserve in search of pastures. This we were told happens annually in the months of July through October. The migrating wildebeest crossed the Mara River where crocodiles would prey on them. It was the largest massacre of the wildebeest and the largest feast for the crocodiles. It was a sight to behold. The wildebeest would dither for hours on the riverbank, striding reluctantly into the river as they calcula ted the risks in the waters.

Environmental Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Environmental Issues - Essay Example The third issue discussed is the ecosystem pricing of goods and services. The fourth outlines the U.S. Chamber of Commerce's position against Precautionary Principle. The last and fifth issue discussed in the paper is paraphrasing the transition to organic agriculture. This paper, therefore, gives a clear and understandable summary of all the issues as discussed in the book. Issue 1 - Precautionary Principle In the book, the argument occurs between Nancy Myers who supports the issue while Goldstein Bernard argues negatively towards the issue. The outline of disagreement between the two principle contributors teaches more about the argument and acts as an analysis of the same. The first disagreement is the beliefs of Nancy Meyer about precautionary principle justifies that the people have a right to know the risks behind the choices intended to make and thus be cautious in exchange of benefits. This gives the people a chance to know as much as possible the dangers on any action. Accor ding to Nancy, the manufacturers increase the possibilities of choosing the options which aim at reducing the risks as a safer alternative to the consumers. On his side, Goldstein Bernard argues that precautionary principle cannot be classified as a threat to the toxicological science. He bases the argument on the fact that, most definitions lack when considering precautionary principle. Another disagreement between Nancy Meyer and Goldstein Bernard is on the risk assessment. There had been arguments in the past that precautionary principle is not needed by the people. Nancy Meyer, on the other hand, argues in a different perspective that risk assessment has been used to derail the application of the precautionary actions appropriately. According to Stein (2000), it is a fact that the assessments of the risks require the decision makers to gather enough information to make the decision. These norms end up in management of the risks rather than preventing them. Nancy’s words w ere once justified by Thompson (2001), who concluded that the standard risk assessment can only be useful in high conditions of uncertainty. This is because it can be utilized to in helping in establishment of better alternative to the technologies which are dangerous. In contrast to the views of Nancy, Goldstein Bernard argues that there are different actions that one can take as a move to precaution. He says that it would be advantageous for one to consider some of the actions under the prevention nomenclature. Goldstein Bernard classifies the prevention actions as primary and secondary prevention. The assumption of the primary preventions is that, there is no problem when starting e.g. a person starting smoking where no cigarettes are produced. He continues to argue that there are no initial problems reported at the initial stage and the primary prevention should, thus, aim in prevention of any action which might trigger problems later. On the other hand, Goldstein Bernard explai ns the secondary prevention to depend on the early discovery of the problems. For example, diagnosing the high blood pressure before the patients gets a stroke. Goldstein Bernard arguments boldly explain that the actions taken as a result of ecological risk assessment and management happens because of being secondary prevention. This is especially when the problem is related to the chemicals which are known to be toxic. There is another

Interpersonal Communication in Relationships Research Paper

Interpersonal Communication in Relationships - Research Paper Example So far, the course has provided vast amounts of information that would assist in improving interpersonal relationships through the right application of communication theories and approaches. I would be structuring my advice in five sections: the principles and misconceptions in effective interpersonal communications; barriers to effective interpersonal interactions; the process of developing and maintaining self-concept; assessing your personal communications and improving communication competencies; and finally, developing strategies for active, critical and emphatic listening. I am sure that although this letter is lengthy, the information contained herein is validated from significant findings sources from researches on the subject by authoritative practitioners in the field. Principles and Misconceptions in Effective Interpersonal Communications Effective interpersonal communications must address issues that lead to misconceptions on communication. Remember John and Vivian how mi sunderstandings commonly results from misinterpreting the messages relayed by the sender of the communication to the recipient, or vise versa? A relevant article published in the Health Day News entitled â€Å"Close Relationships Sometimes Mask Poor Communication† (which I will likewise attach for your further reading on you available time), revealed that couples have tendencies to assume that since they have been together for a defined period in time, their close interpersonal relationship presumes that they understand all communications relayed or exchanged in all circumstances. This is a misconception. Experts reveal that one partner should not assume that the message expressed by the other is always understood (Thompson, n.d.). To address the dilemma, couples must repeat what one said to confirm it the message was correctly understood. Accordingly, the implicit rule is to double check with each other (Thompson, n.d.). The Health Day News article cited Nicholas Epley, a pr ofessor of behavioral science at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business, as explaining the rationale for the misconception, to wit: â€Å"our problem in communicating with friends and spouses is that we have an illusion of insight. Getting close to someone appears to create the illusion of understanding more than actual understanding" (Health Day News, 2011, p. 1). In this regard, to improve communication, John and Vivian, you need to pay closer attention not only on the verbal language that you exchanged, but also on nonverbal modes of communication, such as gesture, body language, tone of the voice, eye contact and even silence (Grohol, n.d.). Caution is likewise advised in the interpretation of nonverbal signals that could also be susceptible to be misinterpreted. The rule on double checking still applies. The website on Family Education provide relevant suggestions to improve communication skills by following the guidelines on steps in clear communication: to observ e undivided attention, figuring out what one really wants to say, and practicing being a good listener, among others (Family Education, n.d.). Now that issues of misconception are resolved, we now proceed to barriers to effective interpersonal interactions. Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Interactions There are diverse sources of barriers that deem to preclude the level of

Answer questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Answer questions - Assignment Example The general solutions that Swift recommends include; giving out ten repine, which is the charge of nursing a beggar’s child. The individuals he names as the donors of money are the cottagers, laborers, and four-fifths of the farmers. He also recommends that the underprivileged should be dressed skin that is artificial and the suitable person responsible for this plan is Dublin (Swift). The advantages Swift observes in his plan is that, it will reduce the number of papists, poor tenants will have something valuable of their own, country’s stock will be increased by fifty thousand per year, the food would likewise bring great custom to taverns, and lastly, it will be a great inducement to marriage (Swift). Others include the addition of thousand carcasses in the exportation of barreled beef and the enhancement of the art of making good bacon. The clues showing that Swift is not serious about his proposal is when he confesses that he is not ready in endeavoring to promote his plans and recommendations of assisting the underprivileged. He also claims that he has no children; hence, has no need to propose and request for a single penny, and his wife cannot bear children any longer

Computer Shopper Essay Example for Free

Computer Shopper Essay Technology has evolved and changed throughout history and the world. In the 80’s and even early 90’s, type writers and the mail man were highly relied on when it came to communication. Today when it comes to communication now we have e-mail and text messaging. Presently different professions use computer but with different configurations. So what I did was take three known professions business, student and professional gamer. To describe what functions are needed for their profession. The Student Being a fulltime student takes a lot and requires one to be on point at every task at hand. Having all materials such as paper, books, pens and pencils. Even through textbooks breaks the bank in your pockets. The need for a notebook also known as a laptop is a major requirement. Having a notebook definitely helps a lot in everyday class curriculums. One problem is that once you have your notebook you need software such Microsoft Office. Microsoft Office is a wonderful tool when it comes to creating and reviewing documents. How can you determine what type of notebook to get though? On table 1 below, I have looked into Best Buy, one of America’s top known electronic retail companies, to see what is it that they have to offer to students. I came across Hewart Packard Pavilion A-8 series. This notebook comes with a 500 gigabyte hard drive and 4 gigabytes of memory. The processor is an Intel Celeron 2.1GHz. It is not one of Intels high end processors but for a student, it is definitely at the top of its class. The price provided by Best Buy is $429.99. The Business Man Reports, meetings, reviews, and analysis are the assignments general business men have to complete daily, weekly and/or monthly. But what type of desktop does a business man usually have in his or her office? Some random hand me down desktop provided by the IT Department? I believe so. What if you were your own boss and needed some sort of desktop that can get you  through everyday business. What type would you go for? Generally you want a desktop with a moderate processor, high on memory and a large hard drive to keep all documentation. Below on table 1, I suggested the Dell XPS desktop. Dell is popular nationwide when it comes to businesses and even schools. The Dell XPS provides 1TB of hard drive, 12GB of memory, and on top of that a 3.4 Intel 4th Generation Core. This desktop is an awesome display of business power and priced at $699.99.

The Introduction To Malicious Software Computer Science Essay

The Introduction To Malicious Software Computer Science Essay Malware is a collective term for any malicious software which enters system without authorization of user of the system. The term is created from amalgamation the words malicious and software. Malware is a very big hazard in todays computing world. It continues to grow in capacity and advance in complexity. As more and more organization try to address the difficulty, the number of websites distribute the malware is rising at an frightening rate and is getting out of control. Most of the malware enters the system while downloading files over Internet. Once the malicious software finds its way into the system, it scans for vulnerabilities of operating system and perform unintended actions on the system finally slowing down the performance of the system. Malware has ability to infect other executable code, data/system files, boot partitions of drives, and create excessive traffic on network leading to denial of service. When user executes the infected file; it becomes resident in memory and infect any other file executed afterwards. If operating system has a vulnerability, malware can also take control of system and infect other systems on network. Such malicious programs (virus is more popular term) are also known as parasites and adversely affect the performance of machine generally resulting in slow-down. Some malware are very easy to detect and remove through antivirus software[1]. These antivirus software maintains a repository of virus signatures i.e., binary pattern characteristic of malicious code. Files suspected to be infected are checked for presence of any virus signatures. This method of detection worked well until the malware writer started writing polymorphic malware [15][16] and metamorphic malware. These variant of malware avoid detection through use of encryption techniques to thwart signature based detection. Security products such as virus scanners look for characteristics byte sequence (signature) to identify malicious code. The quality of the detector is determined by the techniques employed for detection. A stealth malware detection[36] technique must be able to identify malicious code that is hidden or embedded in the original program and should have some capability for detection of yet unknown malware. Commercial virus scanners have very low resilience to new attacks because malware writers continuously make use of new obfuscation methods so that the malware could evade detections. 2.1 Computer Virus A computer virus[6] is basically a program which is written by the programmers whose behaviour is to replicate itself and spread from one computer to another. The term virus is also normally, but incorrectly, used to refer to other types of malware, including but not limited to adware .and these spyware programs that do not have a reproductive ability. Malware includes various computer viruses[6], such as computer worms, Trojan horses[17], most of them are rootkits, spyware which are also considered as dishonest adware and other malicious or redundant software, including proper viruses. Viruses are occasionally confused with worms and Trojan horses, which are theoretically different. A worm can exploit security vulnerabilities to spread itself repeatedly to other computers through networks[7], while a Trojan horse is a program that appears nontoxic but hides malicious functions. Worms and Trojan horses[17], like viruses, may harm a computer systems data or recital. Some viruses and other malware have symptoms noticeable to the computer user, but many are surreptitious or simply do nothing to call attention to themselves. Some viruses do nothing beyond reproducing themselves. An example of a virus which is not a malware, but is putatively benevolent, is Fred Cohens theoretical compression virus[6]. However, various antivirus professionals[5] dont admit the concept of kindly viruses, as any beloved function can be implemented without involving a virus automatic compression, for instance, is available under the Windows operating system at the choice of the user. Any virus will by definition make unconstitutional changes to a computer, which is undesirable even if no damage is done or intended. On page one of Dr Solomons Virus pdf, the undesirability of viruses, even those that do nothing but reproduce, is thoroughly explained. 2.1.1 Academic Work Veith Risak published[6] the article whose title was as follows Selbstreproduzierende Automaten mit minimaler Information sà ¼bertragung (Self-reproducing automaton with minimum information switch over). The article described a fully serviceable virus written in assembler language for a particular SIEMENS 4004/35 computer system. In the year 1980 Jà ¼rgen Kraus wrote his thesis on Selbstreproduktion bei Programmen at the University of Dortmund. In his work Kraus guess that computer programs[4] can behave in a way parallel to biological viruses. In the year of 1984 Fred Cohen at the University of Southern California wrote his paper on the Computer Viruses[6] Theory and Experiments. It was the first paper of him in which he has explained to clearly call a self-reproducing program a virus, a term introduced by Cohens mentor Leonard Adleman. Fred Cohen published a exhibition that there is no algorithm that can perfectly detect all potential viruses. An article that published on malware that describes useful virus functionalities was available by J. B. Gunn in the title Use of virus functions to provide a virtual APL predictor under user control in 1984. 2.1.2 Science Fiction There are several myths associated with the science.The actual term virus was first used to symbolize a self-reproducing program in a small story by David Gerrold in Galaxy magazine in 1969-and later in his 1972 novel, When HARLIE Was One. In that novel, a attentive computer named HARLIE writes viral software to recover damaging personal information from other computers to blackmail the man who wants to turn him off. Michael Crichton[7] told as a sideline story of a computer with telephone modem dialing potential, which had been automatic to randomly dial phone numbers until it hit a modem that is answered by another computer. It was an attempt to program the answer computer with its own program, so that the second computer would also begin dialing unsystematic numbers, in search of yet a different computer to program. The program is assumed to spread exponentially through susceptible computers. 2.1.3 Virus Programs The Creeper virus[6] was first detected on ARPANET, the prototype of the Internet, in the early 1970s. Creeper was an new self-replicating program developed by Bob Thomas at BBN Technologies in 1971. Creeper has used the ARPANET to infect DEC PDP-10 computers which are running on the TENEX operating system. Creeper gain admission via the ARPANET and banal itself to the isolated system where there was a message, Im the creeper, catch me if you can! was displayed. The Reaper program was created to delete Creeper. A program called which is known as Elk Cloner was the first PC virus to appear in the uncultivated that is, outside the single computer or lab where it was created by Richard Skrenta, it attached itself to the Apple DOS 3.3 operating system and spread via floppy disk. This virus, created as a practical joke when Skrenta was studying in the high school and was injected in a game on a floppy disk. On his 50th iterative use the Elk Cloner virus would be activate, which prone to infecting the PCs and displaying a short poem beginning Elk Cloner: The program with a personality. The first IBM PC virus in the natural was a boot sector virus dubbed and created by the Farooq Alvi Brothers in Lahore, Pakistan, seemingly to deter piracy of the software they had written. Before computer networks[7] became widespread, most viruses spread on removable media, particularly floppy disks. In the early days of the PCs, many users frequently exchanged their information and programs on floppies. Some of the viruses are spread by infecting programs which are stored on these disks, while others programs installed themselves into the disk boot sector, which ensure that they would be run when the user booted the computer from the disk, usually inadvertently. Personal computers of the period would try to boot from the floppy at first if one had been left in the drive. Until floppy disks rejects, this was the most unbeaten infection strategy and that is why boot sector viruses were the most common in the wild for many years. Conventional computer viruses[6] emerge in the 1980s, that are driven by the spread of PCs and the consequential increase in BBS, modem use, and software sharing. Bulletin board-driven software giving out contributed directly to the swell of Trojan horse programs, and computer viruses which were written to infect readily traded software. Shareware and bootleg software were equally common vectors for viruses on BB Systems Viruses can increase their chances of spreading over the several other computers which in networks[7] by infecting the files on the particular network file system or a file system which can be access by other computers Macro viruses have become common since the mid-1990s. Most of these viruses are written in the scripting languages for Microsoft programs such as MS-Word and MS-Excel and spread throughout Microsoft Office by infecting documents and spreadsheets. Since Word processor and Excel spread sheets were also available for Mac OS, most could also spread to Macintosh computers. Although most of these computer viruses[6] may not have the capability to send contaminated email messages to those viruses which did take advantage of the Microsoft Outlook COM interface. Some old versions of Microsoft Word allow macros to repeat themselves with added blank lines. If two macro viruses concurrently infect a document, the combination of the two, if also self-replicating, can appear as a mating of the two and would likely be detected as a virus unique from the parents. A virus may also send a web address link as an instant message to all the contacts on an infected machine. If the recipient, thinking the link is from a friend which isa trusted source follows the link to the website, the virus hosted at the site may be able to infect this new computer and continue propagating. Viruses that spread using cross-site scripting were first reported in 2002, and were academically demonstrated in 2005.There have been multiple instances of the cross-site scripting viruses in the wild, exploiting websites such as MySpace and Yahoo!. 2.2 Classification In order to replicate itself, a virus must be permitted to execute code and write to memory. For this reason, many viruses attach themselves to executable files that may be part of legitimate programs (see code injection). If a user attempts to begin an infected program, the virus code may be executed concurrently. Viruses can be separated into two types based on their performance when they are executed. Nonresident viruses straight away search for other hosts system or OS which can be infected, or infect those targets, and finally transfer organize to the application program they infected. Tenant viruses do not search for hosts when they are happening. Instead, a resident virus masses itself into memory on execution and transfers control to the host program. The virus stays active in the background and infects new hosts when those files are accessed by other programs or the operating system itself. 2.2.1 Nonresident Viruses Nonresident viruses can be notion of as consisting of a finder module and a replication module. The finder module is responsible for finding new files to infect. For each new executable file the finder module encounters, it calls the replication module to infect that file. 2.2.2 Resident Viruses Resident viruses contain a replication module which is parallel to the one that is engaged by nonresident viruses. This section, however, is not called by a finder module. The virus[27] masses the duplication module into memory when it is executed instead and ensures that this module is executed each time the operating system is called to carry out a certain operation. The replication module can be called, for example, each time the operating system executes a file. In this case the virus infects every suitable program that is executed on the computer. Resident viruses are sometimes can be divided into a class of fast infectors and a class of slow infectors. Fast infectors are those which are designed to infect as many files as soon as possible. A fast infector, for instance, can infect every potential host file that is accessed. This pose a special difficulty when using anti-virus software[1], since a virus scanner will access every prospective host file on a computer when it performs a system-wide scan. If the virus scanner fails to notice that such a virus is present in memory the virus can piggy-back on the virus scanner and in this way infect all files that are scanned. Fast infectors rely on their fast infection rate to spread. The disadvantage of this method is that infecting many files may make detection more likely, because the virus may slow down a computer or perform many suspicious actions that can be noticed by anti-virus software. Slow infectors, on the other hand, are designed to infect hosts infrequently. Some slow infectors, for instance, only infect files when they are copied. Slow infectors are designed to avoid detection by limiting their actions: they are less likely to slow down a computer noticeably and will, at most, infrequently trigger anti-virus software[5] that detects suspicious behavior by programs. The slow infector approach, however, does not seem very successful. In most of the operating systems which use file extensions to determine program relations such as Microsoft Windows. The extensions may be normally hidden from the user by default. This makes it probable to create a file that is of a different type than it appears to the users or programmers. For example, an executable file may be created named picture.png.exe, in which the user sees only picture.png and therefore assumes that this file is an image and most likely is safe, yet when opened runs the executable on the client machine. An additional scheme is to generate the virus system from parts of existing operating system files by using the CRC16/CRC32 data. The initial code can be quite small (tens of bytes) and unpack a fairly large virus. This is analogous to a biological prion in the way it works but is vulnerable to signature based detection. This attack has not yet been seen in the wild. 2.3 Infection Strategies Virus avoids detection[31] by users, some viruses employ different kinds of deception. Some of the old viruses, especially on the MS-DOS operating system, make sure that the last modified date of a host file stays the same when the file is infected by the virus. This approach does not fool antivirus software, however, especially those which maintain and date cyclic redundancy checks on file changes. Some viruses can infect files without increasing their sizes or damaging the files. They accomplish this by overwriting unused areas of executable files. These are called cavity viruses. For example, the CIH virus, or Chernobyl Virus, infects Portable Executable files. Because those files have many empty gaps, the virus, which was 1 KB in length, did not add to the size of the file. Some viruses try to avoid detection by killing the tasks associated with antivirus software[1] before it can detect them. As computers and operating systems grow larger and more complex, old hiding techniques need to be updated or replaced. Defending a computer against viruses may demand that a file system migrate towards detailed and explicit permission for every kind of file access. 2.3.1 Read Request Intercepts While some antivirus software employ various techniques to counter stealth mechanisms, once the infection occurs any recourse to clean the system is unreliable. In Microsoft Windows operating systems, the NTFS file system is proprietary. Direct access to files without using the Windows OS is undocumented. This leaves antivirus software little alternative but to send a read request to Windows OS files that handle such requests. Some viruses trick antivirus[5] software by intercepting its requests to the OS. A virus can hide itself by intercepting the request to read the infected file, handling the request itself, and return an uninfected version of the file to the antivirus software. The interception can occur by code injection of the actual operating system files that would handle the read request. Thus, an antivirus software[1] attempting to detect the virus will either not be given permission to read the infected file, or, the read request will be served with the uninfected version of the same file. File hashes stored in Windows, to identify altered Windows files, can be overwritten so that the System File Checker will report that system files are originals. The only reliable method to avoid stealth is to boot from a medium that is known to be clean. Security software can then be used to check the dormant operating system files. Most security software relies on virus signatures or they employ heuristics, instead of also using a database of file hashes for Windows OS files. Using file hashes to scan for altered files would guarantee removing an infection. The security software can identify the altered files, and request Windows installation media to replace them with authentic versions. 2.3.2 Self-Modification Most modern antivirus programs try to find virus-patterns inside ordinary programs by scanning them for so-called virus signatures. Unfortunately, the term is misleading, in that viruses do not possess unique signatures in the way that human beings do. Such a virus signature is merely a sequence of bytes that an antivirus program looks for because it is known to be part of the virus. A better term would be search strings. Different antivirus programs[1] will employ different search strings, and indeed different search methods, when identifying viruses[6]. If a virus scanner finds such a pattern in a file, it will perform other checks to make sure that it has found the virus, and not merely a coincidental sequence in an innocent file, before it notifies the user that the file is infected. The user can then delete, or in some cases clean or heal the infected file. Some viruses employ techniques that make detection by means of signatures difficult but probably not impossible. These viru ses modify their code on each infection. That is, each infected file contains a different variant of the virus. 2.3.3 Encryption With A Variable Key A more advanced method is the use of simple encryption to encipher the virus. In this case, the virus consists of a small decrypting dependent methods and an encrypted copy of the virus code. If the virus is encrypted with the help of different key for each infected file, the only part of the virus that leftovers stable is the decrypting unit, which would (for example) be appended to the end. In this case, a virus scanner will not able to detect directly the virus using signatures, but it can still detect the decrypting unit, which still makes indirect revealing of the virus possible. Since these would be symmetric keys, stored on the infected host. In fact completely possible to decrypt the final virus, but this is almost certainly not required, since self-modifying code is such a scarcity that it may be basis for virus scanners to at least flag the file as suspicious. This may be old , but solid, encryption involves XORing each byte in a virus with a even, so that the exclusive-or operation has only to be frequent for decryption. It is doubtful for a code to adjust itself, so the code to do the encryption as wll as decryption may be part of the signature in many virus definition. 2.3.4 Polymorphic Code Polymorphic code was the first technique that posed a serious threat[27] to virus scanners. Likewise various normal encrypted viruses such as a polymorphic virus[15][16] infects files with an encrypted copy of itself, which may be decoded by a decryption method. In the case of polymorphic viruses or polymorphic worms[10], however, this decryption module is also modified on each infection. A well-written polymorphic virus thus has no parts which wait identical between infection, making it very difficult to detect directly using signatures. Antivirus software can detect it by decrypting the viruses using an emulator, or by statistical pattern analysis of the encrypted virus body. To enable polymorphic code, the virus has must have a polymorphic engine which is also called mutating engine or mutation engine anywhere in its encrypted body. Some viruses employ polymorphic code in a system that constrain the change rate of the virus appreciably. For example, a virus can be planned to alter only slightly over time, or it can be programmed to refrain from mutating when it infects a file on a computer that previously contains copies of the virus. The benefit of using such sluggish polymorphic[15][16] code is that it makes it more difficult for antivirus professionals to get representative sample of the virus, because tempt files that are infected in one run will naturally have identical or parallel sample of the virus. This will make it more liable that the detection by the virus scanner will be variable, and that some instances of the virus may be able to avoid detection. 2.3.5 Metamorphic Code To avoid being detected by emulation, some viruses revise themselves completely each time they are to infect new executables. Viruses that make use of this technique are said to be metamorphic. To enable metamorphism, a metamorphic engine must be needed. A metamorphic virus is usually very large and complex. For example, W32/Simile consists of over 15,000 lines of assembly language code, 90% of which is part of the metamorphic engine. 2.3.6 Avoiding Bait Files and other Undesirable Hosts A virus wants to infect hosts in order to multiply further. In some cases, it might be a bad idea to infect a mass program. For example, many antivirus softwares perform an integrity check of their own code. Infecting such programs will therefore increase the likelihood that the virus is detected. For this reason, some viruses are programmed not to infect programs that are known to be part of antivirus software. Another type of host that viruses[27] sometimes avoid are bait files. Bait files (or goat files) are files that are specially created by antivirus software, or by antivirus professionals themselves, to be infected by a virus. These files can be created for various reasons, all of which are related to the detection of the virus: Antivirus professionals can use tempt files to take a test of a virus. It is more realistic to store and exchange a small, infected lure file, than to swap a large application program that has been infected by the virus. Antivirus professionals can use bait files to study the actions of a virus and assess detection methods. This is particularly useful when the virus is polymorphic[15][16]. In this case, the virus can be made to infect a large number of entice files. The grimy files can be used to test whether a virus scanner detects all versions of the virus. Some antivirus software employ bait files that are accessed regularly. When these files are modified, the antivirus software warns the user that a virus is probably active on the system. Since bait files are used to detect the virus, or to make detection possible, a virus can benefit from not infecting them. Viruses typically do this by avoiding suspicious programs, such as small program files or programs that contain certain patterns of garbage instructions. A related strategy to make baiting difficult is sparse infection. Sometimes, sparse infectors do not infect a host file that would be a suitable candidate for infection in other circumstances. For example, a virus can decide on a random basis whether to infect a file or not, or a virus can only infect host files on particular days of the week. 2.4 Vulnerability and Countermeasures 2.4.1 The Vulnerability of Operating Systems to Viruses Just as genetic diversity in a population decreases the chance of a single disease wiping out a population, the diversity of software systems on a network similarly limits the destructive potential of viruses. This became a particular concern in the 1990s, when Microsoft gained market dominance in desktop operating systems and office suites. Microsoft software is targeted by virus writers due to their desktop dominance. Although Windows is by far the most popular target operating system for virus writers, viruses also exist on other platforms. Any operating system that allows third-party programs to run can theoretically run viruses. As of 2006, there were at least 60 known security exploits targeting the base installation of Mac OS X (with a Unix-based file system and kernel). The number of viruses[6] for the older Apple operating systems, known as Mac OS Classic, varies greatly from source to source, with Apple stating that there are only four known viruses, and independent sources stating there are as many as 63 viruses. Many Mac OS Classic viruses targeted the HyperCard authoring environment. The difference in virus vulnerability between Macs and Windows is a chief selling point, one that Apple uses in their Get a Mac advertising. In January 2009, Symantec announced the discovery of a Trojan that targets Macs. This discovery did not gain much coverage until April 2009. While Linux, and Unix in general, has always natively blocked normal users from having access to make changes to the operating system environment, Windows users are generally not. This difference has continued partly due to the widespread use of administrator accounts in contemporary versions like XP. In 1997, when a virus for Linux was released-known as Bliss-leading antivirus[5] vendors issued warnings that Unix-like systems could fall prey to viruses just like Windows. The Bliss virus may be considered characteristic of viruses-as opposed to worms-on Unix systems. Bliss requires that the user run it explicitly, and it can only infect programs that the user has the access to modify. Unlike Windows users, most Unix users do not log in as an administrator user except to install or configure software; as a result, even if a user ran the virus, it could not harm their operating system. The Bliss virus never became widespread, and remains chiefly a research curiosity. Its creator later posted the source code to Usenet, allowing researchers to see how it worked. 2.4.2 The Role of Software Development Because software is often designed with security features to prevent unauthorized use of system resources, many viruses must exploit software bugs in a system or application to spread. Software development strategies that produce large numbers of bugs will generally also produce potential exploits. 2.4.3 Anti-Virus Software and other Preventive Measures Many users install anti-virus software that can detect and eliminate known viruses after the computer downloads or runs the executable. There are two common methods that an anti-virus software application uses to detect viruses. The first, and by far the most common method of virus detection is using a list of virus signature definitions. This works by examining the content of the computers memory (its RAM, and boot sectors) and the files stored on fixed or removable drives (hard drives, floppy drives), and comparing those files against a database of known virus signatures. The disadvantage of this detection[32] method is that users are only protected from viruses that pre-date their last virus definition update. The second method is to use a heuristic algorithm to find viruses based on common behaviors. This method has the ability to detect novel viruses that anti-virus security[7] firms have yet to create a signature for. Some anti-virus programs are able to scan opened files in addition to sent and received email messages on the fly in a similar manner. This practice is known as on-access scanning. Anti-virus software does not change the underlying capability of host software to transmit viruses. Users must update their software regularly to patch security holes. Anti-virus software also needs to be regularly updated in order to recognize the latest threats[27]. One may also minimize the damage done by viruses by making regular backups of data (and the operating systems) on different media, that are either kept unconnected to the system (most of the time), read-only or not accessible for other reasons, such as using different file systems. This way, if data is lost through a virus, one can start again using the backup (which should preferably be recent). If a backup session on optical media like CD and DVD is closed, it becomes read-only and can no longer be affected by a virus (so long as a virus or infected file was not copied onto the CD/DVD). Likewise, an operating system on a bootable CD can be used to start the computer if the installed operating systems become unusable. Backups on removable media must be carefully inspected before restoration. The Gammima virus, for example, propagates via removable flash drives. 2.4.4 Recovery Methods A number of recovery options exist after a computer has a virus. These actions depend on the virus. Some may be safely removed by functions available in most anti-virus software products. Others may require re-installation of damaged programs. It is necessary to know the characteristics of the virus involved to take the correct action, and anti-virus products will identify known viruses precisely before trying to dis-infect a computer; otherwise such action could itself cause a lot of damage. New viruses that anti-virus researchers have not yet studied therefore present an ongoing problem, which requires anti-virus packages[1] to be updated frequently. 2.4.5 Virus Removal One possibility on Windows Me, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7 is a tool known as System Restore, which restores the registry and critical system files to a previous checkpoint. Often a virus will cause a system to hang, and a subsequent hard reboot will render a system restore point from the same day corrupt. Restore points from previous days should work provided the virus is not designed to corrupt the restore files and does not exist in previous restore points. Some viruses disable System Restore and other important tools such as Task Manager and Command Prompt. An example of a virus that does this is Cia Door. Many such viruses can be removed by rebooting the computer, entering Windows safe mode , and then using system tools. Many websites run by anti-virus software companies provide free online virus scanning, with limited cleaning facilities (the purpose of the sites is to sell anti-virus products). Some websites allow a single suspicious file to be checked by many antivirus programs in one operation. Additionally, several capable antivirus software programs are available for free download from the internet (usually restricted to non-commercial use), and Microsoft provide a free anti-malware utility that runs as part of their regular Windows update regime. 2.4.6 Operating System Reinstallation Reinstalling any OS is another loom to virus removal. It involves either reformatting the computers hard disk drive and installing the operating system and